Clark, William. Academic Charisma and the Origins of the Research University. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 2007.

Summary
Tracing the transformation of early modern academics into modern researchers from the Renaissance to Romanticism, William Clark 'reframes ''the "Protestant Ethic" to reconsider the conditions of knowledge production in the modern world. Clark argues that the research university—which originated in German Protestant lands and spread globally in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries—developed in response to market forces and bureaucracy, producing a new kind of academic whose goal was to establish originality and achieve fame through publication. Academia lost its theological, transcendental mission during the Enlightenment, when religion moved from the affairs of the state to the private individual. Further, Ministries and markets worked to rationalize practices of authority and “bureaucratic and entrepreneurial interests worked to alter or subvert the traditional authority of faculties and colleges.” It resulted in the transition from the traditional or medieval (Church-state) juridico-ecclesiastical academic world into the modern politico-economic regime of research''. Vested in the'' clothing, books, furniture, titles, and so on, “charisma at the traditional university served to uphold authority by sanctifying traditions and differentiating academics as a group from others groups in society.” (18) In contrast, “The strength of the modern research university consists in its ability to rationalize and routinize such prophecy and revolution” and “make equilibrium dynamic.” Rather than being invested in a collective, corporate, or collegial body, academic charisma at the research university inheres more in individuals.

Example: German Policey Staat monitored behavior of subect by paper work. They policed the guilds and sought to transforms them from complext traditional groups into occupational groups. University as a result became regulated and required to produce a politico-economic report about their affairs.

See also: Julie Reuben, The Making of the Modern UniversityThe Making of the Modern University; Thomas Bender, The University and the City

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